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+# The _Black_ code style
+
+## Code style
+
+_Black_ reformats entire files in place. It is not configurable. It doesn't take
+previous formatting into account. It doesn't reformat blocks that start with
+`# fmt: off` and end with `# fmt: on`. `# fmt: on/off` have to be on the same level of
+indentation. It also recognizes [YAPF](https://github.com/google/yapf)'s block comments
+to the same effect, as a courtesy for straddling code.
+
+### How _Black_ wraps lines
+
+_Black_ ignores previous formatting and applies uniform horizontal and vertical
+whitespace to your code. The rules for horizontal whitespace can be summarized as: do
+whatever makes `pycodestyle` happy. The coding style used by _Black_ can be viewed as a
+strict subset of PEP 8.
+
+As for vertical whitespace, _Black_ tries to render one full expression or simple
+statement per line. If this fits the allotted line length, great.
+
+```py3
+# in:
+
+j = [1,
+     2,
+     3
+]
+
+# out:
+
+j = [1, 2, 3]
+```
+
+If not, _Black_ will look at the contents of the first outer matching brackets and put
+that in a separate indented line.
+
+```py3
+# in:
+
+ImportantClass.important_method(exc, limit, lookup_lines, capture_locals, extra_argument)
+
+# out:
+
+ImportantClass.important_method(
+    exc, limit, lookup_lines, capture_locals, extra_argument
+)
+```
+
+If that still doesn't fit the bill, it will decompose the internal expression further
+using the same rule, indenting matching brackets every time. If the contents of the
+matching brackets pair are comma-separated (like an argument list, or a dict literal,
+and so on) then _Black_ will first try to keep them on the same line with the matching
+brackets. If that doesn't work, it will put all of them in separate lines.
+
+```py3
+# in:
+
+def very_important_function(template: str, *variables, file: os.PathLike, engine: str, header: bool = True, debug: bool = False):
+    """Applies `variables` to the `template` and writes to `file`."""
+    with open(file, 'w') as f:
+        ...
+
+# out:
+
+def very_important_function(
+    template: str,
+    *variables,
+    file: os.PathLike,
+    engine: str,
+    header: bool = True,
+    debug: bool = False,
+):
+    """Applies `variables` to the `template` and writes to `file`."""
+    with open(file, "w") as f:
+        ...
+```
+
+_Black_ prefers parentheses over backslashes, and will remove backslashes if found.
+
+```py3
+# in:
+
+if some_short_rule1 \
+  and some_short_rule2:
+      ...
+
+# out:
+
+if some_short_rule1 and some_short_rule2:
+  ...
+
+
+# in:
+
+if some_long_rule1 \
+  and some_long_rule2:
+    ...
+
+# out:
+
+if (
+    some_long_rule1
+    and some_long_rule2
+):
+    ...
+
+```
+
+Backslashes and multiline strings are one of the two places in the Python grammar that
+break significant indentation. You never need backslashes, they are used to force the
+grammar to accept breaks that would otherwise be parse errors. That makes them confusing
+to look at and brittle to modify. This is why _Black_ always gets rid of them.
+
+If you're reaching for backslashes, that's a clear signal that you can do better if you
+slightly refactor your code. I hope some of the examples above show you that there are
+many ways in which you can do it.
+
+However there is one exception: `with` statements using multiple context managers.
+Python's grammar does not allow organizing parentheses around the series of context
+managers.
+
+We don't want formatting like:
+
+```py3
+with make_context_manager1() as cm1, make_context_manager2() as cm2, make_context_manager3() as cm3, make_context_manager4() as cm4:
+    ...  # nothing to split on - line too long
+```
+
+So _Black_ will now format it like this:
+
+```py3
+with \
+     make_context_manager(1) as cm1, \
+     make_context_manager(2) as cm2, \
+     make_context_manager(3) as cm3, \
+     make_context_manager(4) as cm4 \
+:
+    ...  # backslashes and an ugly stranded colon
+```
+
+You might have noticed that closing brackets are always dedented and that a trailing
+comma is always added. Such formatting produces smaller diffs; when you add or remove an
+element, it's always just one line. Also, having the closing bracket dedented provides a
+clear delimiter between two distinct sections of the code that otherwise share the same
+indentation level (like the arguments list and the docstring in the example above).
+
+If a data structure literal (tuple, list, set, dict) or a line of "from" imports cannot
+fit in the allotted length, it's always split into one element per line. This minimizes
+diffs as well as enables readers of code to find which commit introduced a particular
+entry. This also makes _Black_ compatible with [isort](https://pypi.org/p/isort/) with
+the following configuration.
+
+<details>
+<summary>A compatible `.isort.cfg`</summary>
+
+```cfg
+[settings]
+multi_line_output = 3
+include_trailing_comma = True
+force_grid_wrap = 0
+use_parentheses = True
+ensure_newline_before_comments = True
+line_length = 88
+```
+
+The equivalent command line is:
+
+```
+$ isort --multi-line=3 --trailing-comma --force-grid-wrap=0 --use-parentheses --line-width=88 [ file.py ]
+```
+
+</details>
+
+### Line length
+
+You probably noticed the peculiar default line length. _Black_ defaults to 88 characters
+per line, which happens to be 10% over 80. This number was found to produce
+significantly shorter files than sticking with 80 (the most popular), or even 79 (used
+by the standard library). In general,
+[90-ish seems like the wise choice](https://youtu.be/wf-BqAjZb8M?t=260).
+
+If you're paid by the line of code you write, you can pass `--line-length` with a lower
+number. _Black_ will try to respect that. However, sometimes it won't be able to without
+breaking other rules. In those rare cases, auto-formatted code will exceed your allotted
+limit.
+
+You can also increase it, but remember that people with sight disabilities find it
+harder to work with line lengths exceeding 100 characters. It also adversely affects
+side-by-side diff review on typical screen resolutions. Long lines also make it harder
+to present code neatly in documentation or talk slides.
+
+If you're using Flake8, you can bump `max-line-length` to 88 and forget about it.
+Alternatively, use [Bugbear](https://github.com/PyCQA/flake8-bugbear)'s B950 warning
+instead of E501 and keep the max line length at 80 which you are probably already using.
+You'd do it like this:
+
+```ini
+[flake8]
+max-line-length = 80
+...
+select = C,E,F,W,B,B950
+ignore = E203, E501, W503
+```
+
+You'll find _Black_'s own .flake8 config file is configured like this. Explanation of
+why W503 and E203 are disabled can be found further in this documentation. And if you're
+curious about the reasoning behind B950,
+[Bugbear's documentation](https://github.com/PyCQA/flake8-bugbear#opinionated-warnings)
+explains it. The tl;dr is "it's like highway speed limits, we won't bother you if you
+overdo it by a few km/h".
+
+**If you're looking for a minimal, black-compatible flake8 configuration:**
+
+```ini
+[flake8]
+max-line-length = 88
+extend-ignore = E203
+```
+
+### Empty lines
+
+_Black_ avoids spurious vertical whitespace. This is in the spirit of PEP 8 which says
+that in-function vertical whitespace should only be used sparingly.
+
+_Black_ will allow single empty lines inside functions, and single and double empty
+lines on module level left by the original editors, except when they're within
+parenthesized expressions. Since such expressions are always reformatted to fit minimal
+space, this whitespace is lost.
+
+It will also insert proper spacing before and after function definitions. It's one line
+before and after inner functions and two lines before and after module-level functions
+and classes. _Black_ will not put empty lines between function/class definitions and
+standalone comments that immediately precede the given function/class.
+
+_Black_ will enforce single empty lines between a class-level docstring and the first
+following field or method. This conforms to
+[PEP 257](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0257/#multi-line-docstrings).
+
+_Black_ won't insert empty lines after function docstrings unless that empty line is
+required due to an inner function starting immediately after.
+
+### Trailing commas
+
+_Black_ will add trailing commas to expressions that are split by comma where each
+element is on its own line. This includes function signatures.
+
+Unnecessary trailing commas are removed if an expression fits in one line. This makes it
+1% more likely that your line won't exceed the allotted line length limit. Moreover, in
+this scenario, if you added another argument to your call, you'd probably fit it in the
+same line anyway. That doesn't make diffs any larger.
+
+One exception to removing trailing commas is tuple expressions with just one element. In
+this case _Black_ won't touch the single trailing comma as this would unexpectedly
+change the underlying data type. Note that this is also the case when commas are used
+while indexing. This is a tuple in disguise: `numpy_array[3, ]`.
+
+One exception to adding trailing commas is function signatures containing `*`, `*args`,
+or `**kwargs`. In this case a trailing comma is only safe to use on Python 3.6. _Black_
+will detect if your file is already 3.6+ only and use trailing commas in this situation.
+If you wonder how it knows, it looks for f-strings and existing use of trailing commas
+in function signatures that have stars in them. In other words, if you'd like a trailing
+comma in this situation and _Black_ didn't recognize it was safe to do so, put it there
+manually and _Black_ will keep it.
+
+### Strings
+
+_Black_ prefers double quotes (`"` and `"""`) over single quotes (`'` and `'''`). It
+will replace the latter with the former as long as it does not result in more backslash
+escapes than before.
+
+_Black_ also standardizes string prefixes, making them always lowercase. On top of that,
+if your code is already Python 3.6+ only or it's using the `unicode_literals` future
+import, _Black_ will remove `u` from the string prefix as it is meaningless in those
+scenarios.
+
+The main reason to standardize on a single form of quotes is aesthetics. Having one kind
+of quotes everywhere reduces reader distraction. It will also enable a future version of
+_Black_ to merge consecutive string literals that ended up on the same line (see
+[#26](https://github.com/psf/black/issues/26) for details).
+
+Why settle on double quotes? They anticipate apostrophes in English text. They match the
+docstring standard described in
+[PEP 257](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0257/#what-is-a-docstring). An empty
+string in double quotes (`""`) is impossible to confuse with a one double-quote
+regardless of fonts and syntax highlighting used. On top of this, double quotes for
+strings are consistent with C which Python interacts a lot with.
+
+On certain keyboard layouts like US English, typing single quotes is a bit easier than
+double quotes. The latter requires use of the Shift key. My recommendation here is to
+keep using whatever is faster to type and let _Black_ handle the transformation.
+
+If you are adopting _Black_ in a large project with pre-existing string conventions
+(like the popular
+["single quotes for data, double quotes for human-readable strings"](https://stackoverflow.com/a/56190)),
+you can pass `--skip-string-normalization` on the command line. This is meant as an
+adoption helper, avoid using this for new projects.
+
+### Numeric literals
+
+_Black_ standardizes most numeric literals to use lowercase letters for the syntactic
+parts and uppercase letters for the digits themselves: `0xAB` instead of `0XAB` and
+`1e10` instead of `1E10`. Python 2 long literals are styled as `2L` instead of `2l` to
+avoid confusion between `l` and `1`.
+
+### Line breaks & binary operators
+
+_Black_ will break a line before a binary operator when splitting a block of code over
+multiple lines. This is so that _Black_ is compliant with the recent changes in the
+[PEP 8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/#should-a-line-break-before-or-after-a-binary-operator)
+style guide, which emphasizes that this approach improves readability.
+
+This behaviour may raise `W503 line break before binary operator` warnings in style
+guide enforcement tools like Flake8. Since `W503` is not PEP 8 compliant, you should
+tell Flake8 to ignore these warnings.
+
+### Slices
+
+PEP 8
+[recommends](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/#whitespace-in-expressions-and-statements)
+to treat `:` in slices as a binary operator with the lowest priority, and to leave an
+equal amount of space on either side, except if a parameter is omitted (e.g.
+`ham[1 + 1 :]`). It recommends no spaces around `:` operators for "simple expressions"
+(`ham[lower:upper]`), and extra space for "complex expressions"
+(`ham[lower : upper + offset]`). _Black_ treats anything more than variable names as
+"complex" (`ham[lower : upper + 1]`). It also states that for extended slices, both `:`
+operators have to have the same amount of spacing, except if a parameter is omitted
+(`ham[1 + 1 ::]`). _Black_ enforces these rules consistently.
+
+This behaviour may raise `E203 whitespace before ':'` warnings in style guide
+enforcement tools like Flake8. Since `E203` is not PEP 8 compliant, you should tell
+Flake8 to ignore these warnings.
+
+### Parentheses
+
+Some parentheses are optional in the Python grammar. Any expression can be wrapped in a
+pair of parentheses to form an atom. There are a few interesting cases:
+
+- `if (...):`
+- `while (...):`
+- `for (...) in (...):`
+- `assert (...), (...)`
+- `from X import (...)`
+- assignments like:
+  - `target = (...)`
+  - `target: type = (...)`
+  - `some, *un, packing = (...)`
+  - `augmented += (...)`
+
+In those cases, parentheses are removed when the entire statement fits in one line, or
+if the inner expression doesn't have any delimiters to further split on. If there is
+only a single delimiter and the expression starts or ends with a bracket, the
+parenthesis can also be successfully omitted since the existing bracket pair will
+organize the expression neatly anyway. Otherwise, the parentheses are added.
+
+Please note that _Black_ does not add or remove any additional nested parentheses that
+you might want to have for clarity or further code organization. For example those
+parentheses are not going to be removed:
+
+```py3
+return not (this or that)
+decision = (maybe.this() and values > 0) or (maybe.that() and values < 0)
+```
+
+### Call chains
+
+Some popular APIs, like ORMs, use call chaining. This API style is known as a
+[fluent interface](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluent_interface). _Black_ formats
+those by treating dots that follow a call or an indexing operation like a very low
+priority delimiter. It's easier to show the behavior than to explain it. Look at the
+example:
+
+```py3
+def example(session):
+    result = (
+        session.query(models.Customer.id)
+        .filter(
+            models.Customer.account_id == account_id,
+            models.Customer.email == email_address,
+        )
+        .order_by(models.Customer.id.asc())
+        .all()
+    )
+```
+
+### Typing stub files
+
+PEP 484 describes the syntax for type hints in Python. One of the use cases for typing
+is providing type annotations for modules which cannot contain them directly (they might
+be written in C, or they might be third-party, or their implementation may be overly
+dynamic, and so on).
+
+To solve this,
+[stub files with the `.pyi` file extension](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484/#stub-files)
+can be used to describe typing information for an external module. Those stub files omit
+the implementation of classes and functions they describe, instead they only contain the
+structure of the file (listing globals, functions, and classes with their members). The
+recommended code style for those files is more terse than PEP 8:
+
+- prefer `...` on the same line as the class/function signature;
+- avoid vertical whitespace between consecutive module-level functions, names, or
+  methods and fields within a single class;
+- use a single blank line between top-level class definitions, or none if the classes
+  are very small.
+
+_Black_ enforces the above rules. There are additional guidelines for formatting `.pyi`
+file that are not enforced yet but might be in a future version of the formatter:
+
+- all function bodies should be empty (contain `...` instead of the body);
+- do not use docstrings;
+- prefer `...` over `pass`;
+- for arguments with a default, use `...` instead of the actual default;
+- avoid using string literals in type annotations, stub files support forward references
+  natively (like Python 3.7 code with `from __future__ import annotations`);
+- use variable annotations instead of type comments, even for stubs that target older
+  versions of Python;
+- for arguments that default to `None`, use `Optional[]` explicitly;
+- use `float` instead of `Union[int, float]`.
+
+## Pragmatism
+
+Early versions of _Black_ used to be absolutist in some respects. They took after its
+initial author. This was fine at the time as it made the implementation simpler and
+there were not many users anyway. Not many edge cases were reported. As a mature tool,
+_Black_ does make some exceptions to rules it otherwise holds. This section documents
+what those exceptions are and why this is the case.
+
+### The magic trailing comma
+
+_Black_ in general does not take existing formatting into account.
+
+However, there are cases where you put a short collection or function call in your code
+but you anticipate it will grow in the future.
+
+For example:
+
+```py3
+TRANSLATIONS = {
+    "en_us": "English (US)",
+    "pl_pl": "polski",
+}
+```
+
+Early versions of _Black_ used to ruthlessly collapse those into one line (it fits!).
+Now, you can communicate that you don't want that by putting a trailing comma in the
+collection yourself. When you do, _Black_ will know to always explode your collection
+into one item per line.
+
+How do you make it stop? Just delete that trailing comma and _Black_ will collapse your
+collection into one line if it fits.
+
+### r"strings" and R"strings"
+
+_Black_ normalizes string quotes as well as string prefixes, making them lowercase. One
+exception to this rule is r-strings. It turns out that the very popular
+[MagicPython](https://github.com/MagicStack/MagicPython/) syntax highlighter, used by
+default by (among others) GitHub and Visual Studio Code, differentiates between
+r-strings and R-strings. The former are syntax highlighted as regular expressions while
+the latter are treated as true raw strings with no special semantics.